All about the prostate pdf download

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Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate three slides at a time, or the slide dot buttons at the end to jump three slides at a time. Michael C. Haffner, Wilbert Zwart, пїЅ Srinivasan Yegnasubramanian. Magdalena M. A major hurdle in the study of rare tumors is a lack of existing preclinical models. Neuroendocrine prostate cancer is an uncommon and aggressive histologic variant of prostate cancer that may arise de novo or as a mechanism of treatment resistance in patients with pre-existing castration-resistant prostate cancer.

There are few available models to study neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Here, we report the generation and characterization of tumor organoids derived from needle biopsies of metastatic lesions from four patients. We demonstrate genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic concordance between organoids and their corresponding patient tumors. We utilize these organoids to understand the biologic role of the epigenetic modifier EZH2 in driving molecular programs associated with neuroendocrine prostate cancer progression.

High-throughput organoid drug screening nominated single agents and drug combinations suggesting repurposing opportunities. This proof of principle study represents a strategy for the study of rare cancer phenotypes. Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men and second leading cause of male cancer death in the United States 1. Nearly all prostate cancer patients are diagnosed with prostate adenocarcinoma, which arises as an androgen-driven disease.

Therefore, a highly effective therapeutic approach for patients with advanced disease is androgen deprivation therapy with gonadal suppression with or without the addition of chemotherapy or the potent androgen synthesis inhibitor abiraterone acetate 2 , 3. However despite initial responses, castration resistance ultimately ensues. With recent therapeutic advances including more effective and earlier use of androgen receptor AR -targeted therapies, the landscape of castration-resistant prostate cancer CRPC is evolving 4.

One extreme manifestation is transformation from an AR-positive adenocarcinoma to an AR-negative small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma characterized by distinct morphologic features 5. While small cell carcinoma of the prostate rarely arises de novo, castration-resistant small cell neuroendocrine prostate cancer evolves clonally from prostate adenocarcinoma during disease progression retaining early prostate cancer genomic alterations and acquiring distinct genomic, epigenetic, and pathway changes 6.

Patients with either de novo small cell neuroendocrine prostate cancer or castration-resistant neuroendocrine prostate cancer CRPC-NE are often treated with platinum-based chemotherapy similar to patients with small cell lung cancer; however, prognosis is poor and there are no known effective therapies beyond platinum.

While in vivo models have been described to model small cell neuroendocrine prostate cancer, the only widely available cell line is the NCI-H cell line, derived from a patient initially thought to have small cell lung cancer but later reclassified as prostate based on the presence of the prostate cancer-specific TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion 7.

To expand on this unmet need, we developed patient-derived organoids from metastatic biopsies from patients with CRPC-NE.

We molecularly characterized these new models and illustrate how they may be utilized to manipulate the expression and activity of oncogenes involved in the establishment of the neuroendocrine phenotype. Both three-dimensional 3D and two-dimensional monolayer 2D organoid-derived cell lines were successfully developed from four patients liver, lymph node, soft tissue, and bone biopsy sites; Fig.

During early passages, a cytology smear was performed to confirm the presence of tumor cells in the culture 8 Fig. Development of patient-derived neuroendocrine prostate cancer models. No organoid established light orange represents no viable cells or no cellular material was found in culture after enzymatical digestion of the tissue. In the scheme a patient biopsy is processed to generate 3D organoids ORG. All four organoids and their PDOXs lacked AR protein expression and expressed classical neuroendocrine markers by immunohistochemistry Fig.

Genome-wide copy number alterations were concordant across models and with time including genes commonly altered in advanced prostate cancer 6 , 12 Fig. Molecular characterization of patient-derived neuroendocrine prostate cancer models. The green barplot on the top of the heatmap represents the CRPC-NE score range from 0, low to 1, high calculated according to methodologies described in Beltran et al. There were no significant differences in gene expression between 2D and 3D cultures correlation coefficient 0.

Based on the presence of genomic alterations involving common cancer-associated genes Supplementary Fig. The high tumor purity of the models, consistent IHC analysis of common markers across tumor cells, and lack of expression of benign markers i.

The histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste 2 EZH2 is an epigenetic modifier frequently overexpressed in many cancer types including prostate cancer and supports cancer cell proliferation and survival 22 , 23 , 24 , EZH2 and H3K27me3 staining intensity vary from 0 no to minimal intensity to 4 high intensity.

Staining intensity is calculated from 0 no to minimal intensity to 2 medium-high intensity. Three hundred cells have been evaluated for the scoring.

These signatures are ranked based on p value from 0. To gain further insights into how epigenetic modulation might affect neuroendocrine prostate cancer progression, we successfully infected human CRPC-NE organoids with short hairpin RNA targeting EZH2 or a scramble sequence. Knockdown of EZH2 resulted in a reduction of its activity measured through the H3K27 methylation and a decrease in expression of classical neuroendocrine markers including synaptophysin SYP but remained AR-negative Fig.

By gene set enrichment analysis GSEA , we found a significant upregulation of EZH2-suppressed target genes and downregulation of stem cell and neuronal programs after knockdown Fig. EZH2 has been associated with stem cell properties and tumor-initiating cell function in different cancer types including glioblastoma, breast, and pancreatic cancers 24 , This resulted in a reduction of H3K27me3 expression Supplementary Fig.

These results were confirmed measuring cell death by annexin staining Supplementary Fig. However given the high doses required, combination therapies may be required similar to what has been described in other cancer types 26 , 32 , As expected, drugs approved for patients with CRPC-Adeno including enzalutamide, an AR-antagonist, and the taxane chemotherapies cabazitaxel and docetaxel 35 , 36 were identified as active in CRPC-Adeno organoids based on the drug screen.

Highlighted compounds are clinically relevant and represent a subclass of drugs. GSK has been added to the drug screening plate at IC High-throughput drug screening also highlighted patient-specific sensitivities Fig. ESMO We confirmed responses to single agents including alisertib and GSK in vitro using both cancer and benign prostate cell line and organoids Supplementary Fig. These data support a potential role of organoid drug screening to predict individual patient responses to therapy.

Drug screening also identified drugs predicted by genomic alterations. As described the OWCM organoid and corresponding patient was resistant to alisertib as single agent; these data suggest that targeting two pathways implicated as cooperators for CRPC-NE progression 13 may be an effective approach and may be picked up through an unbiased screen.

For the alisertib responder organoids, other drugs nominated as effective in combination with GSK included the EGFR class of inhibitors neratinib, afatinib, erlotinib, and osimertinib.

While there have been significant advances in the treatment of patients with advanced prostate cancer, there is a wide variability in clinical responses to existing drugs. There are few preclinical models that recapitulate the clinical and molecular heterogeneity seen among patients thereby limiting the rational development of molecularly driven treatment strategies.

Here we focus on the CRPC-NE phenotype, an emerging and aggressive subtype of advanced prostate cancer that can arise as an androgen-independent mechanism of resistance to AR-directed therapies, due to the lack of approved therapies for patients, limited preclinical models only one cell line is available through ATCC , and a still preliminary understanding of CRPC-NE biology.

Here we show that gaps in our knowledge concerning rare cancers may be addressed through the development of patient-derived preclinical models. Patient organoids retain the molecular features of their corresponding patient over time and maintain similar responses to drugs in vitro. Attempts to create prostate cancer organoids from biopsies have also been performed by other laboratories with similarly low overall success rates for indefinite propagation and expansion, perhaps due to the inability of cells to adapt very quickly from tissue to the culture conditions and therefore avoiding senescence.

Of the seven prostate cancer organoids described in Gao et al. It has been shown that higher cell density deactivates mTOR pathway and suppress the senescence program The use of ROCK inhibitors while passaging organoids delays senescence and supports proliferation programs 41 , 42 but tissue processing and media optimization are required to make this more suitable for low biopsy input cellular amount.

Adding the organoid development step from smaller input material including needle biopsies could positively impact the ability to generate patient in vivo models. EZH2 inhibition resulted in a downregulation of neuroendocrine pathway genes and those associated with stem cell and neuronal pathways; however, AR expression or activity did not increase suggesting a later disease state and possibly loss of plasticity and inability of these CRPC-NE organoids to revert back to a more luminal state.

The organoid models OWCM and OWCM were developed from an exceptional responder and non-responder patient enrolled on the phase 2 clinical trial and demonstrated corresponding responses to alisertib in vitro. Drug screening also identified drugs and drug combinations concordant with the genomic background of the tumors, as was the case of PTEN loss that conferred response to AKT inhibition.

Combination screens using an EZH2 inhibitor as a potential method for priming to other treatments identified novel combinations not yet tested in the clinic for CRPC-NE patients. Although additional studies are needed to further understand the biologic implications of several of these findings, these data suggest that CRPC-NE organoids are clinically relevant models to unveil novel targets and therapies, and high-throughput drug screening is a useful tool to generate valid treatment hypotheses for CRPC-NE.

Germline normal DNA was obtained from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. All hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides were reviewed by board-certified pathologists J. Histologic criteria were from the proposed classification of prostate cancer with neuroendocrine differentiation 9.

The final resuspended pellet was combined with growth factor-reduced Matrigel Corning in a volume ratio. The resulting cell clusters and single cells were washed and replated, following the protocol listed above. Throughout prostate organoid development, cultures were screened for various Mycoplasma strains using the MycoAlert Kit Lonza and confirmed negative before being used for experimental assays.

Mice used for xenografts were 6-to 8-weeks old. Cages were changed fully once a week. Tumor volume was measured every week with a caliper. The harvested tumors were partly used for histology, genomic and transcriptomic analysis and partly rengrafted into NOD scid gamma mice. Organoids were lysed in RIPA buffer supplemented with protease inhibitor cocktail and phosphatase inhibitors Thermo Scientific.

The total protein concentration of the soluble extract was determined using the BCA protein assay Kit Thermo Scientific. Following three washes with TBS-T, the blot was incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and immune complexes were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence detection ECL plus kit, Pierce.

If a case showed heterogeneous staining, the intensity score representative of the majority of tumor nuclei of that case was assigned. Scoring of Synaptophysin was performed blindly by a pathologist analyzing cells on slides sh scramble vs shEZH2 and applying the following scoring system: 0 negative staining, 1 weak, 2 mild staining.

Primary and secondary antibodies were added in PBS solution containing 0. Organoids at early passage were morphologically screened for contamination of benign epithelial cells and fibroblasts. The stained organoids were reviewed by the study pathologists.

Whole-exome capture libraries were constructed after sample-shearing, end repair, and phosphorylation and ligation to barcoded sequencing adaptors. Concordance between tumor tissues, tumor organoid models, and matching xenografts was assessed using SPIA 49 genotype distance test. A pair cnA, cnB of integer values, representing allele-specific copy number, was assigned to each genomic segment identified by the IPM-Exome-pipeline, as described in Beltran et al.

Quality filters required at least ten informative SNPs and mean coverage of 20 to call allele-specific values of a segment. Post-processing manual review of allele-specific calls was performed. Concordance between two tumor samples was assessed by comparing discretized allele-specific copy number values into five levels Fig.

Reciprocal loss of heterozygosity event captures complex copy number states where one allele is lost, and the other one is gained. Reciprocal loss of heterozygosity was conserved in tumor organoids models and matching xenografts. Cufflinks 2. Since the sequenced samples from the published data were processed using different library preps, batch normalization was done using ComBat11 from sva bioconductor package The gene counts from htseq-count13 and DESeq2 Bioconductor package14 were used to identify differentially expressed genes.

For each sample, AR signaling was assessed based on the expression levels of 30 genes 6. Only sites covered by at least ten reads were considered for downstream analysis. For each sample, the percentage of methylation per site beta value was computed. Cell authentication was performed using STR analysis and cells were routinely tested for M ycoplasma contamination and resulted negative.

Beguelin and Dr. In brief, organoid cells were collected and resuspended with infection media containing Y Selleck Chemical and Polybrene Millipore.

We used pLKO. Differences between values were considered statistically significant at a p value of less than 0. Drugs were diluted to a 6-point dose curve incorporating a 3 or 4-fold dilution step in the presence and absence of an IC30 concentration of GSK All screening plates were subjected to stringent quality control measures, including the Z factor calculation. AUC values were then compared with the SEngine Precision Medicine internal database of a total of 47 primary tumor samples across multiple tumor types, generating an AUC Z-score that we integrated for the prioritization of future drug investigation.

The tumor types included prostate, ovarian, breast, gliomatosis cerebri, myxofibrosarcoma, head and neck, thyroid, liver, CML, endometrial, glioblastoma, colorectal, lung, cholangiosarcoma, uterine carcinosarcoma, and neuroblastoma.

This method of statistical analysis allows for the detection of unique sensitivities across multiple samples. For the drug combinations study, the top drug combinations were selected through multiple criteria: AUC fold change, AUC differential, AUC combination Z-score, drug target, novelty, and clinical status of drugs.

The published human data are available through dbGap:phs Siegel, R. Cancer statistics, CA Cancer J. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Fizazi, K. Abiraterone plus prednisone in metastatic, castration-sensitive prostate cancer.

James, N. Abiraterone for prostate cancer not previously treated with hormone therapy. Bluemn, E. Androgen receptor pathway-independent prostate cancer is sustained through FGF signaling. Cancer Cell 32 , пїЅ Wang, H. Beltran, H. Divergent clonal evolution of castration-resistant neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Mertz, K. Neoplasia 9 , пїЅ Pauli, C. An emerging role for cytopathology in precision oncology.

Cancer Cytopathol. Epstein, J. Proposed morphologic classification of prostate cancer with neuroendocrine differentiation. Mosquera, J. Neoplasia 15 , 1пїЅ10 Prandi, D. Unraveling the clonal hierarchy of somatic genomic aberrations. Genome Biol. Robinson, D. Integrative clinical genomics of advanced prostate cancer. Cell , пїЅ Dardenne, E.

N-Myc induces an EZH2-mediated transcriptional program driving neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Cancer Cell 30 , пїЅ Akamatsu, S. The placental gene PEG10 promotes progression of neuroendocrine prostate cancer.

Cell Rep. Li, Y. The book is written by international experts in prostate disease, which provides the reader with the best source of information available. Includes supplementary material: sn. This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution. The book gives a most up-to-date summary of the available information in this area. The audience includes patients who have been recently diagnosed with prostate cancer or prostate-related diseases or concerned individuals.

Juan Arriaga. Raed A. Inderbir S. Book Title : Prostate Cancer. Book Subtitle : A Patient's Guide. Azhar, Inderbir S. Publisher : Springer Cham. Edition Number : 1. Number of Pages : XI, Skip to main content. Search SpringerLink Search. Azhar 2 , пїЅ Inderbir S. Gill 3 Show editors. View editor publications.

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