Foods experimental perspectives 8th edition pdf download free

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Discussion � The discussion of the results includes a statement of the results as given in the tables and figures. Do refer to each table and figure in your discussion. Also include the errors involved in experimentation, difficulties encountered, possible explanations for results obtained, and any conclusions that could be drawn from your results.

Be sure to draw comparisons between objective and subjective results when possible. When questions are included with experiments in the laboratory manual, incorporate answers to these questions in the discussion.

References � Use the style of the Journal of Food Science. Kinetic study of thermally induced inulin gel. J Food Sci � For example, the formats of Table 5. Tables 5. Copyright by Institute of Food Technologists.

With permission. For recording data in laboratory books, each trial, as well as the average, needs to be recorded. An example of a style that would be suitable is: Variable 0. It is inefficient to make a new table for each week, so tables should be prepared in advance in the laboratory notebook. An example of a table that might be appropriate is illustrated by Table 5. In the final report, report data as means with standard deviations.

Table 5. The lines on the bars are standard deviations. This is done in accord with the highest standards of professional ethics. Research articles serve to convey the results of original work that has a clear relationship to human foods. Review articles serve to convey in-depth, interpretive coverage of topics of current importance.

Acceptability of articles for publication is carefully considered, with quality of the science, appropriateness, and importance weighing heavily in the final decision. Authorship Criteria and Author Responsibilities IFT is proud of the high quality of research reported in its journals and is dedicated to maintaining a high level of professionalism.

However, because unprofessional behavior, either intentional or unintentional, has been known to occur, we remind authors of their obligations when submitting manuscripts for publication. Authorship Criteria Authorship is restricted to those who: Have contributed substantially to one or more of the following aspects of the work: conception, planning, execution, writing, interpretation, and statistical analysis Are willing to assume public responsibility for the validity of the work Membership in the Institute of Food Technologists is not a prerequisite for consideration of manuscripts for publication.

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Journal Sections Authors are asked to indicate the desired section for their manuscript when submitting the paper. Choose among: 1. Coverage of all aspects of food science, including safety and nutrition. Reviews should be 15 to 50 typewritten pages including tables, figures, and references , should provide in-depth coverage of a narrowly defined topic, and should embody careful evaluation weaknesses, strengths, explanation of discrepancies in results among similar studies of all pertinent studies, so that insightful interpretations and conclusions can be presented.

Hypothesis papers are welcome. These are especially appropriate in pioneering areas of research or important areas that are afflicted by scientific controversy. Coverage of original research on degradative and preservative reactions, toxicology, functional properties, post-harvest physiology of plants, muscle biology, analytical procedures, and composition. May deal with any aspect of food science, including safety and nutrition, that is of widespread current interest.

Should provide in-depth coverage of a narrowly defined topic, and should embody careful evaluation weaknesses, strengths, explanation of discrepancies in results among similar studies of all pertinent studies, so that insightful, integrative interpretations, summaries, and conclusions can be presented.

Before preparing a manuscript, the author should submit: a proposed title; a short statement describing the importance of the topic and how the presentation will advance the field of food science for unsolicited papers only , and a one- page outline. Following agreement between the author and Scientific Editor with respect to title, author statement, and outline, the author will receive an invitation to prepare a manuscript.

Publishes information about the teaching of food science and technology and serves as an information vehicle to instructors in food science at various educational levels. Specify one of the following: original research, review, innovative laboratory exercise or demonstration, classroom technique, or Letter to Editor. For convenience, refer to articles in the latest issue of the journal for details or contact the JFS Editorial Office with your questions.

All manuscripts should be submitted electronically through Manuscript Central. Details provided at the end of this document. Working Template for Research Papers Use this working template as a visual guideline. Simply remove the guides and fill in the appropriate information. Word 6. Manuscripts on Original Research Manuscripts on original research should include the following elements.

Title Page, as p. Include: Full title be concise Name s of author s and author affiliation s with complete address es Contact information for the corresponding author, including full name, complete mailing address, telephone, fax, and e-mail address Short version of title less than 40 letters and spaces Choice of the journal section in which you would like your article to appear, choosing from those listed above Previous address es of author s if research was conducted at a place different from current affiliation Manuscript Central will indicate where this information should be entered.

Abstract Page, as p. Include: An abstract not exceeding words; all acronyms and abbreviations defined; no references cited.

State what was done, how it was done, major results, and conclusions. Five key words for indexing purposes. Manuscript Central will indicate where this information should be entered. Materials and Methods Provide sufficient detail so work can be repeated. Describe new methods in detail; accepted methods briefly with references. Use subheadings as needed for clarity. If a product trade name is used, it is imperative that the product be described in sufficient detail so the nature of the product will be understood by professionally trained readers.

Do not use trade names in titles. Do not use abbreviations and acronyms in titles. If the data do not meet these criteria, appropriate statistical analysis must be conducted and reported. Results and Discussion Present and discuss results concisely using figures and tables as needed.

Do not present the same information in figures and tables. Compare results to those previously reported, and clearly indicate what new information is contributed by the present study. Conclusion State conclusions not a summary briefly.

References List only those references cited in the text. Required format of references is described below. Acknowledgments List sources of financial or material support and the names of individuals whose contributions were significant but not deserving of authorship.

Appendix This section is rarely needed in a research paper but can be added if deemed necessary e. Tables Number each table with Arabic numerals. Place a descriptive caption at the top of each table. Print one table per page. Columns and their headings are usually but not always used to display the dependent variable s being presented in the table.

Footnotes should be identified by lower-case letters appearing as superscripts in the body of the table and preceding the footnote below the table.

The same data should not appear in both tables and figures. Tables and images must be submitted electronically in Manuscript Central. Type in the legend, with Arabic numbering, immediately below your image file reference in Manuscript Central. Authors are responsible for obtaining permission to reproduce previously copyrighted illustrations.

Proof or certification of permission to reproduce is required. When a color presentation is deemed necessary, please note this in the cover letter of the submission. Summary tables and figures dealing with key points should be used liberally.

The review should begin with a statement describing the importance of the topic and the objectives of the review. A standard format for headings in the text is not required, but headings and subheadings should be used whenever needed to improve the clarity and readability of the presentation. Authors are encouraged to consult with the editor-in-chief before preparing a review for consideration. Hypothesis Papers Essential elements are title page, abstract, text, conclusion, references.

The paper should begin with a statement describing the objectives of the paper, be followed by a logical progression of ideas or concepts that provide a rationale for the hypothesis, and end with conclusions.

Authors are encouraged to consult with the editor-in-chief before preparing a hypothesis paper for consideration. Choose sections and headings that are most appropriate for the type of data being presented. R e fe r enc e Form at Manuscripts intended for all sections of the journal and the Web site journals must follow the name- year reference format of the Council of Science Editors formerly Council of Biology Editors.

Cite only necessary publications. Primary rather than secondary references should be cited, when possible. In Text Cite publications in text with author name and year. Use commas to separate publications in different years by the same author. Semicolons separate citations of different authors. Cite two or more publications of different authors in chronological sequence, from earliest to latest. For example: The starch granules are normally elongated in the milk stage Brown Smith and others reported growth In References Section List only those references cited in the text.

Single author precedes same author with co-authors. Type references flush left as separate paragraphs do not indent manually, let the text wrap. Article title. Journal title volume number issue number : inclusive pages. Maillard browning in apples. J Food Sci 64 4 � Books Author s or [editor s ].

Place of publication: publisher name. Number of pages. Methods of food analysis. New York: Elsevier. Chapters Author s of the chapter. Title of the chapter. In: author s or editor s. Title of the book. Edition or volume if relevant. Place of publication: publisher. Pages of the chapter. Lipid oxidation in fish muscle. Lipid oxidation in food. New York: Pergamon. Patents Name of the inventor of the patented device or process; Company name, assignee.

Date issued [year month day]. Patent descriptor [including name of country issuing the patent and the patent number]. Epoxidation process. Those failing to meet current standards are rejected without further review. Those meeting these initial standards are sent to expert referees for peer review except for Letters to the Editor. Author identities are disclosed to the referees. The Scientific Editor informs the author of the final decision.

Accepted Manuscripts The author s will be asked to review a fully laid out and copy-edited page proof. The author s is responsible for all statements appearing in the galley proofs. The author will be informed of the estimated date of publication. LaSalle St. Authors who do not have access to the Internet may submit their manuscripts in paper form to the JFS Editorial Office. Electronic submission, however, will speed the handling of your manuscript and allow you to monitor its status in the handling process at any time.

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Individual 7 Project Select a problem for your individual project as soon as possible, and have your topic and methods approved by the instructor. Develop a testable hypothesis with clearly identified independent and dependent variables. Apply the principles of the scientific method in approaching your problem. Once the topic and methods are verbally approved, the plans should be formalized in writing for a grade. The following should be included in your proposal.

Title 2. Hypothesis and objectives 3. Background: Review the literature and establish what is known and what gaps remain to answer your question. Include a justification for studying your problem. Justify your dependent variables. Is there a logical relationship between the dependent and independent variables?

Justify the methods you selected. Are they standard procedures? Give the purpose of your project. Approach: Give methods � what you plan to do and how. Be specific. Include procedures and recipes and their source. Quantities of ingredients must be in metric units e.

If you are doing sensory evaluation, include an example of your scorecard and describe your panel. How do you plan to control variables other than the one tested � for example, variation within a food sample, temperature, mixing procedure, size of product, sample preparation required for testing, etc.?

Show that you have thought through the problem. Work plan: Plan each step � what you are going to do each week and the preparations required prior to the laboratory period. Plan to replicate as time allows, preferably three times.

Supplies needed: Turn in supply sheets and market orders with your proposal. List item and amount and when needed along with any specifications brand, etc. For some materials, it is beneficial to have the same lot or variety for each replicate, so enough should be ordered at one time for the entire project.

Perishable items must be ordered as needed. Prepare a separate supply order form for each day that you wish to receive materials and date the order form for the date you wish to receive the items. Or al Presentation Your presentation should be 8 minutes long. Emphasize your results and discussion.

Background: Provide sufficient background to acquaint the audience with the problem being studied. Where appropriate, show the chemical structure or reaction under investigation.

If the design is complicated, show a flow chart. Results: Describe results, preferably using figures. Do not expect the audience to remember what a treatment code stands for through a series of overheads. Figures and tables should report means and standard deviations for each treatment, including for sensory data. Be sure to report the number of replications used and define the scale for sensory data.

If you use a bar graph for sensory data, have the highest value indicate the most desirable property. You must cite at least one literature reference from an original research article during your oral presentation.

You should be sure to address the original hypothesis or question. For example, if your objective is to reduce the calories in a product, you must calcu- late the calorie reduction as well as report objective and sensory findings. Wr it ten Presentation Your written report must be typed, spell-checked, and neat. Use a technical writing style. Avoid the use of first person, contractions, and colloquial and literary styles.

Use proper grammar. The title should be descriptive but not excessively long. Your written report should include an abstract. An abstract is a one-paragraph summary of problem, methods, main findings, and take-home message. Your written report should include the following sections: 1.

Introduction: This section should state the problem being studied with sufficient background so that readers can fully understand the project. This will likely require a discussion of a chemical process learned in class such as oxidative rancidity with reactions , starch gelatinization, gluten development, etc. This section may also include a review of methods available to test your dependent variable and an explanation for your selected approach.

This section should include a statement of the purpose of the project including specific independent and dependent variables. This statement could come at the end of this section or, if the section is several pages long, it could come at the end of the first paragraph. If standard curves are used, include figure or correlation coefficient and p value.

Discussions without sufficient citations from the literature will result in substantial point deductions. The reader should be able to determine whether your project was successful. Results: Summarize data in tables and figures using complete titles that can be understood without reference to the text including type of product if relevant. The text must refer to each table and figure, and tables and figures must be numbered sequentially.

Avoid direct quotations of references. Paraphrase sources � do not plagiarize! Emphasize original journal articles. The litera- ture available on the selected topic should be well represented. Appendix: Optional; if included, this section follows references. The following experiments have been designed to illustrate some principles of flavor as well as to acquaint the student with several types of tests used in sensory evaluations.

E x pe r i m e n t 1 : T h r e s hol d Con c e n t r ation s of t h e P r i m a ry Ta s te s Introduction and Objective The four basic tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Humans are variably sensitive to compounds provoking these tastes. The lowest concentration that can be recognized as one of the basic tastes is known as the recognition threshold. The objective of this exercise is to determine the approximate recognition threshold concentrations of salty, sour, sweet, and bitter solutions.

Rinse the tongue again with water and apply the next most concentrated solution. Repeat until the taste is distinguishable and record that concentration. E x periment 2: Effect of Temperature on Ta ste Introduction and Objective All basic tastes have an interaction with temperature, that is to say they have a maximum intensity at a certain temperature for a given concentration.

The objective of this exercise is to determine the effect of temperature on the sweetness of a sucrose solution. Completion time: 10 minutes Complications: none Procedure Divide the sucrose solution into three portions. Rank the three for sweetness. Rinse your mouth between tastes. The ability to taste PTC normally detected as bitter is genetically inherited as a dominant trait. Completion time: 5 minutes Complications: none Procedure Apply paper to tongue, wait 30�60 seconds, remove paper, swallow saliva, and record response.

E x periment 4: Comparison of Sweetness of Sugars Introduction and Objective Sugars are generally regarded as sweet, but not all sugars have the same degree of sweetness.

Structure- function relationships cause sugars of different molecular structures and shapes to have different levels of sweetness.

The objective of this exercise is to compare the relative sweetness of several mono- and disaccharides. Wait 10�20 seconds, then compare and record the relative sweetness of the various sugars. E x periment 5: Identification of Sa mples Introduction and Objective We interact with food by way of all our senses. Among the long-distance food-interacting senses are sight and smell. These senses inform our judgments as to the quality and acceptability of foodstuffs.

Without the benefit of sight and smell, it can be very difficult to assess the quality or even the identity of foods. The objective of this exercise is to show the importance of sight and odor for the identification of a product, and, as a corollary, the contribution of aroma to food flavor. Remove plug, taste the same five liquids again, and identify. Question Which samples were correctly identified by taste alone? By taste and odor? Others are more complex, such as ranking or rating, category scaling, magnitude estimation, or hedonic rating.

The objective of these exercises is to become acquainted with a variety of sensory difference testing methods that can be used with foods. Concentrate on one aspect of flavor: tartness. Taste, do not drink, samples. Paired test Simple difference: Are samples and of equal tartness or different? Directional difference: Which sample or is more tart? Triangle or odd sample test: Which sample , , or differs from the other two in tartness? Ranking: Rank the five samples , , , , in descending order for tartness in the spaces provided.

Rating: Rate samples , , in descending order for tartness on the six-point scale below. The reference sample has a score of 4. Table 8. Did you correctly identify the more tart sample of apple juice in the paired test? What were your chances of guessing the right one?

Did you correctly identify the odd sample in the triangle test? If you were unable to distinguish among the three samples, how likely were you to select the odd sample by chance?

Which samples did you have out of order in the ranking test? How many paired comparisons had to be made to rank the five samples? What was the concentration of acid in the reference sample in Experiment 6A, part 5?

Did you identify correctly the test juice that had the same concentration of acid? Did you place the test juice with less acid below the reference sample? Did you place the test juice with more acid above the reference sample? What is the purpose of the reference sample? What factors might influence the position assigned to a particular sample in a descriptive test?

How could the unstructured test in Experiment 6B be quantified? Which kind of sensory test can be used with consumers? E xpe r iment 7: A da ptation of R e ce ptors Introduction and Objective The ability to taste or smell a given stimulus is mediated by taste or odor receptor cells and the biochemical reactions that go on inside them.

The initial step in olfaction or gustation is binding of the molecule to be tasted or smelled to a receptor. The binding, action of the bound molecule, and release to get ready to repeat the cycle are a time-dependent series of events and thus can be saturated, resulting in so-called fatigue or adaptation. The objective of this exercise is to illustrate the adaptation of gustatory and olfactory receptors. Adaptation may be defined as the loss of or change in sensitivity to a given stimulus as a result of continuous exposure to that stimulus or a similar one.

Place a small amount of sodium chloride solution in the mouth and note the time at which the sensation of saltiness has subsided. Repeat the inhalation and exhalation ten times. Each time record the odor intensity. Continue the inhalation and exhalation, and record the total time min required for complete adaptation. L a b o r at o r y : 9 O b j e c t i v e E va l u at i o n o f F o o d s This laboratory period is designed to acquaint the student with some of the objective methods for evaluating the constituents of foods either through demonstration or through participation.

This exposure should aid the student in subsequent laboratories and in planning individual research projects. Some methods that will be used in the laboratory regarding dispersion of matter will not be included in this laboratory.

Directions for use of individual pieces of equipment are given in the Equipment Guide section of this manual. Water Activit y The water activity aw of a food or food ingredient is often more directly related to quality in terms of 1 shelf life stability as affected by chemical, enzymatic, and microbiological changes and 2 compatibility with other foods, formulation, and packaging requirements than is the moisture content of the food itself.

The aw directly or indirectly affects or is related to texture, appearance, aroma, taste, freeze-thaw stability, and the microbiological, chemical, and many other objective and subjective characteristics of food.

Vis co sit y All fluids possess definite resistance to flow, and many solids show a gradual yielding to forces tending to change their form. This property is due to the internal friction of matter and is called viscosity. Viscosity measurements are useful in determining the degree of hydrolysis of starches, pectins, and proteins; the amount of an additive to be added to a food product such as a gelling agent or emulsifier ; the extent of a process affected by heat such as protein denaturation; and the moisture content of products such as honey.

Viscometers are available that allow the determination of absolute viscosity, which is expressed in milliPascal seconds mPs. An older unit for viscosity is centipoises cP. One poise equals one dyne-second per cm2. One mPs equals one cP. Often an experimenter is interested in the relative viscosity of a solution compared to a control such as water.

This information can be provided easily by timing the flow of the solutions through a tube such as a jelmeter or a pipette. Fluids may be classified as Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The flow of Newtonian fluids is characterized by a velocity of flow that is directly proportional to the force applied. Corn syrup is a true solution and should exhibit Newtonian viscosity with increased applied force.

Water is also Newtonian in nature. The terms apparent viscosity and consistency can be used interchangeably for non-Newtonian fluids. Most food systems exhibit non-Newtonian viscosity.

Both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a decrease in viscosity with an increase in temperature but certain bacterial gums such as xanthan and gellan show little change in viscosity over a wide temperature range. S pe c i fi c G r av i t y Density, the mass per unit volume at a specified temperature, is a physical property that can be used to identify foods. A related parameter, specific gravity, is often used instead of density. Specific gravity measurements are used to determine adulteration, quality, and composition of food such as the water or butterfat content of milk, the syrup concentration of canned fruits or juices, and the alcohol content of beverages.

Specific gravity of liquids can be measured with a hydrometer. The lower the density of the sample, the lower the hydrometer will sink. Saccharometers are hydrometers graduated to indicate percentage of sucrose by weight degrees Brix. The refractometer provides an alternative means of measuring the soluble solids of sugar syrups and fruit products and is based on the index of refraction of the solution. E xperiment 1: Water Activit y Introduction and Objective Water activity is of critical importance to many qualities of foods such as texture, appearance, and shelf life.

Foods can be adjusted to various water activities by equilibration of the food in a closed container e. The objective of this exercise is to demonstrate the effect of varying relative humidities and thus, aw on the texture and visual sensory quality attributes of foods and to determine their approximate aw. Table Solutions may be prepared hot; however, cool them sufficiently prior to placing them in chambers. Caution: The NaOH solution is especially hazardous. Treat all solutions with extreme care.

Compare to fresh controls. Evaluate the foods listed in Table Note: Do not eat the food products. Completion time: 1 hour Complications: Foods in desiccators should be prepared two weeks ahead of time and stored in a refrigerator to prevent mold growth. Evaluation and Discussion Questions: 1. Graph the objective data vs. Determine the approximate aw for optimal quality fresh product for each food product. Was the aw determined on the Water Activity System meter close to the value expected from the relative humidity of the saturated solutions?

What conditions might account for discrepancies? Are aw and product moisture directly related? What are the ramifications of packaging on product shelf life in relationship to aw? When a cheese and cracker snack food is made for retail distribution, why do the aw of the cheese and that of the cracker have to be the same? Note: consider humectants. Suggest other tests that could objectively or subjectively evaluate the effect of aw on foods.

For more on aw, see: 1. Rockland, L. Karrel, M. The objectives of this exercise are to illustrate the operation of a Bostwick consistometer and a linespread apparatus for determining relative viscosity and the effect of temper- ature on viscosity and to illustrate the operation of a Brookfield viscometer for studying the influence of applied force on apparent viscosity. Fill two beakers with corn syrup. Determine the relative viscosity of each using the linespread apparatus. Refer to Equipment Guide section for use.

Time flow for 1 min. Repeat Step 1 using catsup instead of corn syrup and determine consistency using the consis- tometer instead of the linespread apparatus. Time flow for 2 min. Fill one ml beaker with corn syrup and one ml beaker with catsup. Refer to the Equipment Guide section for use of the Brookfield viscometer. Graph the data. Questions 1. What factors influence the apparent viscosity of a fluid? How is the Brookfield viscometer used to determine whether a fluid is Newtonian or non- Newtonian?

E xpe r i m e n t 3 : S pe c i fi c G r av i t y a n d R e f r a c t i v e I n de x Introduction and Objective Many Newtonian fluids are fairly dilute solutions of relatively low molecular weight solutes. Examples include sucrose dissolved in water to make a syrup or sugar in fruit juices. Bring whole milk and skim milk to the temperature at which the hydrometer is calibrated.

Transfer samples to appropriate cylinders. Gently lower the clean, dry hydrometer into each sample. Read scale when bubbles are gone and hydrometer is at rest.

Further information on use of the various types of hydrometers may be found in the Equipment Guide section. Use the refractometer to determine the soluble solid content of the same sucrose solutions as in Step 2. Refer to the Equipment Guide section for use of the refractometer.

Compare the results obtained with the saccharometer and the refractometer. What is the effect of butterfat concentration on the specific gravity of milk? What kind of dispersion is milk? When would it be desirable to use a saccharometer vs. L a b o r at o r y : 11 D i s p e r s i o n o f M at t e r A food dispersion is a system consisting of one or more dispersed or discontinuous phases in a continuous phase.

In food systems, the continuous phase is usually either water or an edible oil. Dispersions can be classified on the basis of particle size. A true solution is a one-phase system with the molecules having dimensions below 1 nm.

A suspension has particles that have dimensions greater than this and that are subject to gravitational settling. Particles in a true solution are sufficiently small that many particles can occupy a given volume. Solution properties that depend on the number of particles but not on the identity of those particles in a given volume are called colligative properties and include boiling point, freezing point, vapor pressure, and osmotic pressure.

Two colligative properties, boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, will be studied in this laboratory. The most common classifications on this basis in food systems are sols solid dispersed in liquid , emulsions liquid dispersed in liquid , and foams gas dispersed in liquid.

Many foods fluid milk, salad dressings consist of more than one dispersed phase in a continuous phase. E x periment 1: Solutions Introduction and Objective The solution colligative properties of boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are frequently seen in foods, for example in the endpoint cooking temperatures of candies and in the freezing points of frozen desserts, respectively.

These colligative properties are a result of the interaction of compounds with water and depend on the number of particles present in solution but not on what those particles are. The objective of this exercise is to illustrate the effect of solutes on two colligative properties freezing point and boiling point. Procedure 1. Calibrate your thermometer by determining the boiling point of deionized D. Prepare a salt solution with 30 g NaCl and ml D.

Place beaker on burner over an asbestos wire pad. Suspend thermometer in beaker using a thermometer stand. Begin heating to a rolling boil. Do not undershoot temperatures. Convert the concentration wt. Determine the percent soluble solids with a refractometer. Plot the boiling point vs. Prepare a sucrose solution with 30 g sucrose and ml D.

Remove approximately 2 ml solution into premarked tubes at each of the following temper- atures: Prepare a sucrose solution with g sucrose and ml water in a ml beaker.

Suspend thermometer in beaker using a thermometer clamp and ring stand. Remove approximately 2 ml solution into premarked tubes at each of the following temper- atures: , Calculate the expected sucrose concentration from Steps 3 and 4 and graph the boiling point vs. Place the test tube in a ice to NaCl mixture and observe the temperature at which the solution solidifies.

Why do the calculated and observed concentrations differ for sucrose but not NaCl? What is the boiling point for a thread? Soft ball stage? Hard ball stage? Hard crack stage? How does the final boiling point relate to sucrose concentration and firmness of fudge or toffee?

Enumerate the characteristics of a true solution. E xperiment 2: Emulsions Introduction and Objective Emulsions, a mixture of one immiscible liquid in another, are common in food systems salad dressings, mayonnaise, whole milk. Emulsions may be temporary they separate in a few minutes or permanent they do not separate for months or longer. To achieve a permanent emulsion, an emulsifier is necessary. The function of an emulsifier is to reduce the interfacial tension between the water and oil phases and thus reduce the driving force for phase separation.

The objective of this exercise is to demonstrate the effectiveness of various substances as emulsifying agents. Control no emulsifier 10 40 � 2. Lecithin � 0.

Egg yolk � 0. Detergent � 0. Bile � 0. Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monopalmitate Tween 40 � 0. Control no emulsifier 40 10 � Color oil with a small amount of the fat-soluble Sudan Red dye.

Mix emulsifier into liquid specified for your variation. Put oil and water into sample cup of Sorvall Omni-Mixer or blender. Mix for 30 seconds on speed 5 Sorvall or medium speed in the blender. Pour into beakers or test tubes and observe. What chemical properties should a good emulsifier have? How can emulsifiers be classified by their hydrophilic�lipophilic balance HLB number? What kind of emulsion is cream? Salad dressing? Which type of emulsifier high or low HLB value would you select to manufacture margarine?

Why are detergents good cleaning agents? What is the role of bile in digestion and absorption of fats? E xpe r i ment 3: Foa ming Pr ope rt i e s of Pr ot e i n s Introduction and Objective Foams are a gas dissolved in a liquid and are common in food whipped cream, foam on carbonated beverages. As dispersions of one phase in another, they are somewhat unstable in the same way that emulsions are unstable. However, some food ingredients, notably proteins, stabilize foams.

The objectives of this exercise are to compare the foaming ability of various proteins, to investigate the mechanism of foam formation and stability, and to determine the effect of other chemical substances and temperature on protein foams. Prepare ml of the following dispersions in distilled water. Place 50 ml of solution a into sample cup of Sorvall Omni-Mixer, mix at speed 5 for 30 seconds, and place into ml graduated cylinder.

If using a blender, blend on medium speed for 30 seconds. Repeat with remainder of dispersion a. Continue for dispersions b�h. At the end of this step you should have two graduated cylinders containing each of the blended dispersions, a�h. Measure foam volume at 0, 5, and 30 minutes after mixing. Graph the loss of foam volume over time for each temperature for each dispersion.

Compare the volume and stability of the foams as a function of: a. Nature of protein present b. Type of ingredient in the presence of a protein c. Lipids are often added to foods during their preparation as a tenderizing agent, as one phase of an emulsion, as a method of transferring heat as in frying, or for flavor and richness in foods. Fats and oils triglycerides; triacylglycerols are characterized by their insolubility in water and solubility in organic solvents.

One physical constant often used to identify fats and oils is specific gravity. The index of refraction of an oil is often used to indicate the degree of hydrogenation. Increases in the chain length or unsaturation of a fatty acid cause an increase in refractive index.

Prevention of rancidity is a concern in the storage life of a fat or foods containing fats. E x pe r i ment 1 : Od ors a nd Ph ys ica l S tat e of L i pi d s and Fat t y A c id s Introduction and Objective Compounds may or may not have odors, depending on their molecular weight. Molecular weight and other structural features chain length, unsaturation also affect fatty acid and lipid physical properties such as melting point.

In the case of lipids, odors are principally produced by free fatty acids and, at least for low-molecular-weight fatty acids C4�C10 , the odors are unpleasant to say the least. The objective of this exercise is to demonstrate the odors and physical states of common food lipids and fatty acids. Procedure Place approximately 10 g of each lipid or fatty acid in ml beakers, cover with aluminum foil, and bring to room temperature.

Describe the odor of these fatty materials. Relate the observed odors to structure and degree of refinement or processing undergone. E xpe r i m e n t 2 : S olu b i l i t y, S pe c i fi c G r av i t y, and Refra c tive Inde x Introduction and Objective Lipids may be characterized in a number of ways.

They are soluble in organic solvents but not in water. They have a specific gravity of less than 1. They may also be characterized by their refractive indexes, which may correlate to specific structural features such as unsaturation or chain length.

The objective of this exercise is to illustrate some of these characteristics of lipids. Shake vigorously and observe. To each tube add 5 ml of vegetable oil. Introduce a hydrometer into the oil and determine the specific gravity of the oil. Determine the refractive index of each of the oils. In which solvents did the oil dissolve? What quality of oil is demonstrated by specific gravity? Relate the structures of the various oils to their refractive indices.

E x pe r iment 3: Water-A bs or bi ng Ca pa ci t y Introduction and Objective In certain food systems, fats must be mixed and remain mixed. The extent to which fats can absorb water is called the water-absorbing capacity and is important in food systems such as cakes. Fats differ in their ability to absorb water, largely based on differences in their composition.

The objective of this exercise is to demonstrate the water-absorbing capacity of commercial fats. Procedure Transfer g of each lipid at room temperature to a small bowl of an electric mixer.

Record the volume of water taken up by g of each fat. Graph the results. What factors influence the emulsifying capacity of fats? Why is the emulsifying capacity of a fat important?

E xpe r i ment 4: Pl a stic it y of Fats Introduction and Objective In addition to the incorporation of water into fats Experiment 3 , it is occasionally important to incorporate air into fats, as in the creaming of fat and sugar in cake mixes.

This incorporation of air is largely responsible for the leavening that these products contain. The ability to incorporate air is related to fat crystal size generally, the smaller the fat crystals, the more air that can be incorporated.

The objective of this exercise is to illustrate the creaming ability of various fats. Add g of fine sugar granulated gradually over a period of 2 min. Then continue to beat for another 3 min. Transfer the creamed mixture to a previously weighed measuring cup and determine the weight of 1 cup of creamed fat. Take the weight of a cup measure full of water to determine the specific gravities of the creamed fats. See Equipment Guide section for specific gravity. Graph your results.

What determines the creaming ability of a fat? Why is the creaming ability of a fat important? Fat bloom is a white or gray coating on the surface of chocolate that occurs when unstable forms of fat crystals melt, come to the surface, and recrystallize into the larger, more stable VI crystals. In order to prevent or delay bloom, it is necessary to set as much of the cocoa butter as possible in its stable V form initially and to avoid high storage temperatures.

The objective of this exercise is to demonstrate how cooling rate and seeding can alter the crystal structure of chocolate in the tempering process. Melt two blocks 2 oz of unsweetened chocolate in a ml beaker. Use a water bath or oven to avoid overheating, but do not allow moisture to get into the chocolate. Weigh 6 g of the melted chocolate into an aluminum dish and spread it evenly in a thin layer over the bottom.

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